History of Artaxerxes II of Persia

Artaxerxes II Mnemon, ruler of the Achaemenid Empire from 404 to 358 BCE, is a figure whose reign exemplified the complexity of Persian internal and external politics in the ancient world. As the eldest son of Darius II Ochus and Parysatis, his rise to the throne was not without challenge, marking the beginning of a prolonged era where he fought to maintain the vast empire’s integrity amidst internal discord and external threats. Artaxerxes II, a name drawing attention to a political legacy intertwined with familial strife, rebellion, and diplomacy, wielded power during a period marked by both fragmentation and consolidation within the Persian domain.

When Artaxerxes II ascended to the throne after the death of his father, Darius II, he inherited a sprawling empire characterized by diverse cultures and constant pressure from considerous geographic frontiers. His reign commenced with the infamous revolt led by his younger brother, Cyrus the Younger, whose ambition to supplant Artaxerxes for control of the empire became a significant early challenge. The rivalry culminated in the Battle of Cunaxa in 401 BCE, where Artaxerxes' forces triumphed, and Cyrus was killed. While this victory solidified Artaxerxes’ claim to the throne, it exposed vulnerabilities within the empire's military structure and the centrifugal forces of regional autonomy.

Artaxerxes II's political legacy is chiefly marked by his efforts to maintain internal cohesion amid these tensions. His governance style was deeply influenced by the necessity to appease various satraps, who wielded substantial local power. Demonstrating political acumen, Artaxerxes adeptly managed these provincial governors through a combination of strategic marriages, granting of honors, and practical promises of autonomy, which would ensure their loyalty, albeit at the cost of increased decentralization.

Externally, Artaxerxes’ reign was characterized by renewed hostilities with Greece and dealing with the aftermath of the Greco-Persian Wars. His engagement in Greek politics included supporting Sparta against Athens and its allies in the early part of his reign, shifting the balance of power in Greece. The King's Peace, also known as the Peace of Antalcidas in 387/386 BCE, highlights Artaxerxes' political strategy in the Greek world. This peace treaty forced Greek states to recognize Persian hegemony over Ionia and ordered the withdrawal of their garrisons, showcasing Artaxerxes’ diplomatic dexterity, as he managed to manipulate Greek rivalries to restore Persian influence without direct military confrontation.

Internally, Artaxerxes II faced several revolts, instigated by satraps and regional leaders dissatisfied with central control or enticed by the chance for greater autonomy. Notable among these was the revolt led by Datames, the satrap of Cappadocia, and later the Great Satrap Revolt, instigated by a coalition of powerful satraps in Asia Minor during the 360s BCE. These upheavals underscored the perennial challenges of administering an empire as geographically expansive and culturally diverse as that of the Achaemenids. While Artaxerxes managed to quell these uprisings, they hobbled his administration and highlighted the empire's fragmented nature.

Artaxerxes II’s reign also saw religious and cultural developments. The emperor was a patron of Zoroastrianism, reinforcing the religion within the state and aligning religious orthodoxy with imperial policy. This patronage had significant cultural implications, instilling Zoroastrian tenets more deeply into Persian society and governance, yet it also suggested underlying religious tensions, especially with minorities and satraps who may have leaned towards local traditions.

Toward the end of his reign, Artaxerxes’ empire showed signs of strain. Having reigned for over four decades, the longest of the Achaemenid monarchs, his age and the repeated revolts testifying to the vulnerabilities inherent in the vast empire's composition. His attempts at reconciliation manifested in episodes recorded as familial intrigue, as he balanced the ambitions of his sons, precipitating a dynastic unease that would erupt into full scale revolt after his death.

Despite these challenges, Artaxerxes II's political acumen lay in sustained diplomacy amidst turbulent times, a testament to his skill as a ruler who navigated an empire full of potential fractiousness. His legacy is complex, blending achievements in diplomatic finesse and religious-cultural policy with the inherent instabilities of rule, which his heirs would find difficult to manage. Though perhaps overshadowed by other emperors within the Achaemenid dynasty, Artaxerxes II's reign stands as a pivotal chapter in Persian monarchy, illustrating the fractal dimensions of power and the art of seasoned governance in an ancient superpower.