History of Darius II

Darius II, also known as Darius II Ochus, reigned as the King of the Persian Empire from 423 BCE to 404 BCE during the Achaemenid Dynasty. His rule is often overshadowed by that of his more illustrious predecessors, such as Cyrus the Great and Darius I, but Darius II's reign was a significant period punctuated by both internal strife and external challenges. Chronicled by Xenophon and discussed in the context of Greek historical texts, Darius II's political strategies and actions played a crucial role in the complex interplay between Persia and the city-states of Greece.

Darius II was born as Ochus, the son of Artaxerxes I, and initially did not appear to be in line for the throne. His path to power was tumultuous, navigated through a series of court intrigues and power struggles typical of the Achaemenid succession. Upon the death of his father, the empire saw brief rulers in Xerxes II and Sogdianus, both of whom reigned for only short periods. Xerxes II, a legitimate son of Artaxerxes I, was murdered by his half-brother Sogdianus, who was subsequently overthrown by Ochus. Via a coup that capitalized on alliances and decisively using force and political acumen, Ochus became the king, adopting the name Darius II.

One of the defining aspects of Darius II's reign was the continuation and intensification of Persian influence in the Greek city-states. His rule coincided with the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE), primarily fought between Athens and Sparta, each vying for dominance over the Greek world. This conflict presented an opportunity for Persia to intervene and exert influence, following a pragmatic policy aimed at keeping the Greeks divided. By supporting conflicting sides at various times with financial aid, Darius II capitalized on Greek disunity to stabilize and strengthen Persia's western frontiers without direct military confrontation.

Darius II cultivated this approach by first supporting Athens indirectly through his satraps in Asia Minor, then shifting towards Sparta as the war progressed. His satrap Tissaphernes initially played a pivotal role in these diplomatic maneuvers. However, when Spartan victories suggested an eventual defeat of Athens, Darius II found it more expedient to back the Spartans more directly, leading to a decisive shift in the war dynamics. The Treaty of Miletus in 412 BCE formalized Persian financial and military support for Sparta in return for recognizing Persian sovereignty over the cities in Asia Minor once controlled by Athens.

Internally, Darius II faced significant challenges. His reign was marked by numerous rebellions and internal strife, mostly due to issues of pay and discontent among the satraps. The widespread autonomy that satraps enjoyed sometimes led to them operating almost as independent entities, posing a perpetual threat to the central authority of the king. Notably, Darius II had to contend with revolts in Egypt and various satraps attempting to cement their power, which drained resources and required delicate handling to prevent secession. It was during his reign that the Persian Empire, while still vast and powerful, began to show signs of the administrative challenges that would later contribute to its decline.

Darius II’s domestic policies were characterized by efforts to strengthen royal authority against these internal challenges. This included the removal or demotion of rebellious satraps and retribution against those perceived to be disloyal. He promulgated laws aimed at consolidating royal power and ensuring economic stability. However, his effectiveness was hampered by widespread corruption and inefficiencies that had begun to permeate the imperial bureaucracy.

The latter years of Darius II’s reign were increasingly focused on maintaining the uneasy status quo within the empire and managing the fractious dynamic on the western frontiers. His death in 404 BCE brought about another succession crisis, as his sons Artaxerxes II and Cyrus the Younger vied for the throne. The subsequent civil war, known as the Battle of Cunaxa, between these two heirs, highlighted the ongoing issues of power consolidation and central authority that had been a feature of his reign.

While Darius II may not have left a legacy of monumental conquests or grand projects, his reign was pivotal in the sense that it underscored the strategic and diplomatic acumen required to navigate the multifaceted political landscape of the time. His ability to leverage Persian influence in the wider Greek world without direct conquest exemplified a potent diplomatic strategy. The handling of domestic and foreign affairs under Darius II also highlighted the beginnings of the systemic problems within the Achaemenid Empire that his successors would grapple with, leading into the rise of Macedon and the eventual conquest by Alexander the Great.

In summary, Darius II’s role as a politician was one of cautious pragmatism, shrewd diplomacy, and intricate internal management. Despite the relative obscurity of his reign compared to other historical figures of the Achaemenid Empire, his impact on Persian-Greek dynamics was significant and set the stage for future interactions between these two pivotal civilizations of the ancient world.