History of Empress Dowager Cixi

Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908), an influential Chinese political leader, played a pivotal role in the Qing Dynasty's final years, wielding power behind the throne for nearly half a century. Her reign, marked by both progressive reforms and conservatism, has long been a subject of historical debate.

Cixi, originally named Yehe Nara Xingzhen, was born to a marginal Manchu family in Beijing. At 16, she was selected as a concubine for the Xianfeng Emperor, soon rising to prominence when she gave birth to his only surviving son, Zaichun, the future Tongzhi Emperor. Upon the Xianfeng Emperor's death in 1861, Cixi, alongside Empress Dowager Ci'an, assumed the regency for her five-year-old son.

The backdrop of Cixi’s rise was marked by turbulence. China faced internal and external pressures—domestic rebellion, such as the Taiping Rebellion, and foreign invasions by Western powers and Japan, demanding concessions and humiliating treaties. Initially, Cixi and Ci'an ruled jointly, guiding a beleaguered empire through these upheavals. Their partnership with Prince Gong, a reform-minded statesman, was instrumental in stabilizing the dynasty during this volatile period.

Cixi's political acumen was evident early in her regency. She deftly navigated court politics, sidelining rivals and securing her position. The 1861 Xinyou Coup exemplified her influence; with a faction of loyalists, she overturned the power balance in the Qing court, replacing conservative regents with more progressive officials willing to embrace selective modernization.

This was the beginning of what became known as the Tongzhi Restoration, an effort to rejuvenate the dynasty through selective reform without undermining imperial authority. The administration embarked on initiatives to modernize China's military and infrastructure, including the establishment of arsenals and shipyards and the training of a modern army. Cixi, while wary of completely overhauling traditional Chinese governance, recognized the necessity of integrating Western technological advances to safeguard Qing sovereignty.

As the Tongzhi Emperor came of age, Cixi showed her political cunning once more, remaining a powerful behind-the-scenes figure even after his ascension. She adeptly engineered the emperor’s marriage to an empress she could manipulate, ensuring her continued influence. Unfortunately, the Tongzhi Emperor's reign was short-lived; he died without a male heir, necessitating the appointment of his cousin, the Guangxu Emperor. This again thrust Cixi into the role of regent.

Cixi’s regency over the Guangxu Emperor's reign saw significant political maneuvering. While initially supportive of reforms, her relationship with the young emperor grew fractious, especially during and after the Hundred Days' Reform of 1898. Guangxu, influenced by reformist thinkers like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, attempted to implement sweeping political, educational, and military reforms aiming at modernizing China. Cixi, interpreting these actions as a direct threat to her power and the Confucian order she cherished, orchestrated a coup to reassert her control, confining the emperor and reversing many of his decrees.

This backlash, often characterized as reactionary, reveals Cixi's complex political philosophy. She was not opposed to reform per se but was wary of Western ideas she perceived as undermining the imperial system. Her approach was pragmatic; preserve the dynasty and Chinese culture while cautiously integrating essential modern elements.

The turn of the 20th century marked a particularly challenging period. The Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901), spurred by anti-foreign sentiment, was initially supported by Cixi as a means to expel foreign influence. However, the ensuing international intervention devastated China, resulting in the Boxer Protocol—more concessions humiliating for China, financially crippling the dynasty, and forcing Cixi into a retreat.

The twilight of Cixi’s influence overlapped with attempts at limited reform, particularly after she resumed her duties in 1902 after fleeing from chaos. Realizing the urgent need for modernization, she sanctioned reforms including establishing new educational systems, modernizing the military, and working towards constitutional governance—dubbed by historians as the 'New Policies.' But these reforms, though significant, came too late to save the Qing dynasty from collapse.

Cixi’s death in 1908, just one day after the Guangxu Emperor, effectively ended an era. Her legacy remains mixed; some view her as a stubborn traditionalist who delayed China's modernization, while others regard her as a shrewd operator who managed to extend the life of a decaying dynasty against overwhelming odds. Her ability to maintain power as a female leader in a patriarchal society is notable and remarkable. Cixi's nuanced legacy offers insights into the complexities of political power and reform during one of China's most pivotal historical epochs.