History of Justinian II

Justinian II, also known as Justinian Rhinotmetus, meaning "the slit-nosed," was a significant figure in Byzantine history, ruling as Emperor twice, from 685 to 695 and from 705 to 711. His reign was marked by ambition, challenges, and a dramatic narrative of loss and restoration of power.

Born in 668, Justinian II was the son of Emperor Constantine IV and Empress Anastasia. He ascended to the throne at a young age after his father's death in 685, inheriting a relatively stable and prosperous empire. His early reign featured military campaigns that expanded the empire's borders and strengthened its position, especially against the Umayyad Caliphate. One of his notable military achievements was the successful campaign against the Arabs in Armenia and the Caucasus, where he capitalized on brief periods of internal strife within the Caliphate.

Domestically, Justinian II was known for his ambitious projects and autocratic style. He continued his predecessors' policy of consolidating imperial authority, often at the expense of the aristocracy and the church. He also initiated extensive building projects, including churches and palaces, aiming to increase the splendor of Constantinople and its environs. However, his oppressive taxation to fund these endeavors and his harsh measures against dissent led to widespread discontent among various societal factions.

This dissatisfaction culminated in a revolt in 695. The revolt was led by Leontios, a general who capitalized on the unrest and managed to overthrow Justinian II. In a particularly savage act intended to prevent any future claims to the throne, Leontios ordered that Justinian's nose be cut off, a common practice in Byzantine times to disqualify an individual from imperial rule due to perceived disfigurement. This mutilation gave rise to his moniker "Rhinotmetus."

Exiled to Cherson in the Crimea, Justinian was initially retained under house arrest. His time in exile, however, did not dim his ambition or resolve. In 705, taking advantage of changing political tides and alliances, including support from the Bulgar Khan, Tervel, and other allies, Justinian staged a comeback. He returned to Constantinople, successfully inciting a coup against the then-reigning emperor, Tiberios III, and reclaimed his throne.

Justinian II's second reign was marked by attempts to restore his authority and exact revenge on those who had wronged him previously. His return saw brutal retributions against his opponents, as he aimed to eliminate potential threats to his power. His reign engaged in diplomatic missions and marriages to strengthen alliances, notably with the Frankish Kingdom and other neighboring entities.

He sought to stabilize the empire by reversing some of his earlier oppressive policies and attempting to appease dissenting factions. However, his reputation for harshness and vengefulness persisted, causing continued unrest. Efforts to consolidate and maintain his restored rule were marred by growing opposition, both internally and externally.

Despite attempts at stability, Justinian II’s return to power was plagued by internal divisions and mounting external threats. His drive for antagonistic diplomatic relations at times alienated potential allies. Moreover, his negotiations and dealings often presented as failures, reflecting the challenges of sustaining the often-tenuous Byzantine political landscape.

Ultimately, paranoia and distrust marked his later years. Justinian grew increasingly suspicious of his own court, which led to widespread purges. Such actions inevitably sowed further discontent among the populace and the military. His unfaltering quest to reassert his vision for the empire, alongside his punitive approach, further isolated him from essential political and military support.

In 711, a revolt led by Bardanes, known as Philippikos, culminated in Justinian II's eventual downfall. Abandoned by many of his followers, Justinian was captured and executed, bringing an end to his turbulent rule. His death marked the close of a dramatic and tempestuous chapter in Byzantine history, highlighting both the potential and perils of autocratic rule within the empire.

Reflecting on Justinian II's legacy, historians note the complexity of his character and reign. Undoubtedly, he was a figure of significant ambition who sought to reinforce and expand the Byzantine Empire's influence. His early military achievements demonstrated strategic prowess, while his later pursuits revealed the dire consequences of unchecked power and personal vendettas. Justinian's life serves as both a testament to the Byzantine Empire's political intrigue and a cautionary tale regarding the volatile nature of imperial rule in this era. His dramatic narrative of rise, fall, and return, paired with the eventual tragic end, underscores the dynastic struggles and political instabilities that characterized much of Byzantine history.