History of Valentinian II

Valentinian II is a somewhat enigmatic figure in the tapestry of Roman emperors, primarily due to his tumultuous reign characterized by the heavy influences of others around him. Born in 371 AD in Treves (modern-day Trier, Germany), Valentinian II was thrust into a position of immense political power at a young age, becoming emperor at merely four years old after the sudden death of his father, Valentinian I.

Valentinian II's ascent to the throne was orchestrated by his mother, Empress Justina, and the military leadership, ensuring the stability of the Western Roman Empire in the wake of Valentinian I's unexpected death. This move was also a strategic balance against the Eastern Roman Emperor Valens and Valentinian II's half-brother Gratian, who was already reigning in the Western part of the empire. Thus, the young Valentinian II, despite his imperial title, was more a symbol of unity and legitimacy rather than an active political ruler.

Given his tender age, the early years of Valentinian II's reign were dominated by the regency of his mother, Justina, whose influence was considerable in both political and religious spheres. The primary challenge during Valentinian II's reign was the simmering tension between Arian Christianity, supported by Justina, and Nicene Christianity, which had the backing of figures like Ambrose, the influential Bishop of Milan. Justina's Arian leanings put her at odds with Ambrose, climaxing in conflicts over Arian worship rights in Milan. Despite these conflicts, Valentinian II's reign saw the Nicene Creed eventually taking precedence, largely due to the wider acceptance among the elite and common population.

The political landscape drastically shifted after the death of Emperor Valens in the Battle of Adrianople in 378 AD. Valens' defeat led to Gratian becoming the sole ruler of the West, but he soon invited the senior and battle-tested Theodosius I to take control of the Eastern Empire. Theodosius's presence and eventual success in stabilizing the East and dealing with Gothic invasions added another layer to the complex political climate Valentinian II was growing up in.

Amid these changes, Gratian's rule began to wane, facing internal opposition and eventually his assassination in 383 by the usurper Magnus Maximus. Maximus' claim to power forced Valentinian II, now a teenager, to flee with his family to Thessalonica under the protection of Theodosius I. This flight marked a pivotal moment, as it led to Theodosius becoming a powerful force in Valentinian II's life. In 388, Theodosius launched a successful campaign against Magnus Maximus, restoring Valentinian II to power in Italy.

On his return to Italy, Valentinian II was nominally restored to power, although Theodosius retained real imperial authority. This period marked an important transition in the governance of the Western Empire. With the prominent general Arbogast taking a significant role as Valentinian II's magister militum, the young emperor found himself sidelined in his own government. Arbogast, a Frankish general, effectively managed the West's military and political matters, leaving Valentinian II with little real influence.

Tensions between Valentinian II and Arbogast eventually escalated. Historical accounts suggest that Valentinian attempted to dismiss Arbogast, but the general refused, underscoring the limits of the emperor's power. The climax of this strained relationship culminated in the mysterious death of Valentinian II in 392 AD. Found in his residence in Vienne, reports of his death ranged from suicide to assassination, with Arbogast's involvement heavily suspected but never proven.

Valentinian II's death marked the end of his nominal reign but set off a new wave of political turmoil. Arbogast, unable to declare himself emperor due to his barbarian roots, elevated Eugenius, a Roman official, to the purple. This action, however, led to another confrontation with Theodosius I, who could not accept a non-Theodosian ruler in the Western Empire. The resolution came at the Battle of the Frigidus in 394 AD, where Theodosius defeated Eugenius and Arbogast, restoring unity under his leadership.

Valentinian II's short life and reign were symptomatic of the changing nature of Roman imperial politics, where power struggles and external pressures introduced new dynamics into the empire's governance. His rule reflects a period where military might and political intrigue often overshadowed the authority that came from imperial lineage. Despite being an emperor by title, Valentinian II's story is one of passive participation in the historical forces that shaped the late Roman Empire, a portrayal of a ruler whose personal influence was limited amidst the grand machinations surrounding him.

Valentinian II's legacy is inevitably tied to these political complexities of late antiquity, exemplifying the shifting power relationships between emperors, generals, and the ever-looming figure of the barbarian threats at the empire's frontiers. His reign underscores the fragile nature of political control in the late Roman Empire and the profound impact that familial and military alliances had on the survival of its rulers.