History of Valerian

Valerian, known historically as Publius Licinius Valerianus, was a Roman emperor who reigned from 253 to 260 AD during a particularly tumultuous period for the Roman Empire known as the Crisis of the Third Century. This era, characterized by military anarchy, economic depression, and frequent changes of rulers, saw the empire teetering on the brink of collapse. Valerian’s political career and eventual downfall are reflective of the immense challenges faced by Roman leaders during this chaotic time.

Before rising to the imperial throne, Valerian had a distinguished career, during which he gained a reputation for competency and stability. Born into a noble Roman family early in the third century, Valerian climbed the political and military ranks through his connection to powerful elites. Notably, he was a consul, an esteemed role in Roman governance, which highlighted his influence and experience within the political sphere. Despite lacking detailed records of his early career, it’s clear that Valerian was respected among Rome's ruling class.

In 253 AD, amid growing instability across the empire, Valerian was proclaimed emperor by his troops. The Roman Empire at this time was beleaguered by external threats and internal strife. Germanic tribes and the Persian Empire posed significant military challenges, while the central authority of Rome was fragile, with quick successions of emperors—many of whom were dethroned violently or assassinated. Under these conditions, Valerian’s ascent to power was seen as a stabilizing move. Indeed, his immediate efforts were directed at re-establishing control and defending the empire’s beleaguered borders.

Valerian understood that the empire’s survival depended heavily on military might and political alliances. Consequently, he appointed his son, Gallienus, as co-emperor, believing that dividing responsibilities would enable them to address threats on multiple fronts more effectively. Valerian directed his focus eastward, against the growing menace of the Sassanian Empire, while Gallienus defended the western territories. This co-emperorship was a strategic attempt to manage the sprawling challenges the empire faced, but it also highlighted the enormity of the crisis that one man alone could not manage.

Despite his strategic efforts, Valerian’s reign is perhaps most famously marked by his catastrophic campaign against the Sassanian Empire. In 260 AD, in a grim turn of fate, Valerian was captured by Persian forces led by Shapur I during a parley near the city of Edessa. This event was unprecedented; never before had a Roman emperor been taken prisoner by a foreign power. His capture was not just a personal misfortune but a severe blow to Roman prestige. It demonstrated the empire’s vulnerability and fostered further internal instability, as it emboldened various factions and external enemies.

The details of Valerian’s capture and his subsequent treatment by the Persians are largely colored by Roman and later historical accounts, often with embellishments intended to illustrate Roman honor versus barbarian cruelty. Some stories suggest that Valerian suffered indignities as a captive, forced to act as a footstool for Shapur I, though such accounts might have been embellished by Roman sources to highlight the perceived savagery and inhumanity of their enemies. What is certain, however, is that Valerian never returned from captivity, likely dying in Persia, either in captivity or as a result of harsh treatment.

In the aftermath of Valerian’s capture, his son Gallienus was left to deal with the implications of the power vacuum and the ongoing crises. Gallienus continued to rule for another eight years, contending with these vast challenges including usurpations and further encroachments by barbarian tribes.

Valerian’s reign, albeit cut short, is often examined as both a product and a reflection of the broader internal and external challenges that characterized the Crisis of the Third Century. His initial attempts at strong-arm governance and strategic division of power with Gallienus were indicative of a recognition of the complexities involved in managing an extensive and fragmented empire. Despite this, his reign ended ignominiously, symbolizing the Roman Empire’s vulnerability during this epoch.

Over subsequent centuries, Valerian’s narrative served as both a cautionary tale and a historic rallying point. His legacy, at least in Roman historical tradition, particularly underscored the volatile interplay of military power, political alliance, and the severe consequences that could follow the missteps of leadership under attack from external empires. As such, Valerian stands as a potent illustration of a significant but often underappreciated period of Roman history, where the empire oscillated between resilience and ruin, between order and chaos. His story is emblematic of the trials faced by Rome during the Crisis of the Third Century, illustrating both the heights of imperial ambition and the stark realities of calamities that could befall even the mightiest of powers.